It is an unfortunate truth that nothing unites a community like tragedy. On the morning of January 7, 2025, the record-breaking Eaton and Palisades fires started their month-long destruction that claimed over 37,000 acres and 18,000 structures [1]. Los Angeles’s unique communities became a united force of nature, fighting the fires and supporting their neighbors. First responders put themselves in the line of fire, working tirelessly amidst crises such as water shortages and funding cuts. The true unsung heroes of this story, however, are California's incarcerated fire crews.

 Compared to federal programs requiring medically-able inmates to work for as little as $0.12 an hour, California’s Conservation Fire Camp Program plays a critical role in fighting fires while offering incarcerated individuals the best opportunity for vocational development and compensation [2]. However, ethical concerns regarding wage exploitation, health and safety issues, and post-incarceration employment barriers expose the program’s flaws. The underlying question: is the Conservation Fire Camp Program good or just the best option available? 

In 2018, California lawmakers implemented prisoner rehabilitation programs with the hope that they would reduce recidivism rates. These rates remain relatively constant for former inmates, with minor shifts linked to confounding events such as lowered police presence and arrests during the start of the COVID-19 pandemic [3]. Recent data found the three-year recidivism rate for individuals released from the California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation (CDCR) in the fiscal year 2018 to 2019 cohort to be 41.9 percent [4]. After it passed in the state legislature, Governor Gavin Newsom signed the Prison to Employment Initiative into law in 2018, appropriating $37 million to the legislation [5]. This initiative aims to combat the prison system’s historic culture of recidivism over rehabilitation by breaking down the barriers to societal reentry faced by formerly incarcerated people upon release. Although it predates the Prison to Employment Initiative, the Conservation Fire Camp Program is one of the vocational and rehabilitation programs that the initiative promotes. 

In 1946, the opening of the Rainbow Conservation Camp marked the establishment of the California Conservation Fire Camp Program. Even though the use of inmate labor existed before the Rainbow Conservation Camp opened, this program was formally established to alleviate the dire need for firefighters caused by labor shortages during World War II [6]. The Conservation Fire Camp Program is a collaborative, joint operation between the CDCR, CAL Fire, and the Los Angeles County Fire Department (LAFD). Presently, there are 35 active conservation camps across 25 counties, with more than 3,000 incarcerated individuals participating annually. Moreover, involvement in this program is voluntary and offered on an exclusionary basis to minimum security inmates—those with no violent convictions—with a record of good behavior who pass medical and physical clearances. Upon acceptance into the California Conservation Fire Camp Program, participants receive the same entry-level training as CAL FIRE’s seasonal firefighters, equipping them with skills from fire suppression to emergency response [7]. 

It goes without saying that there is power in numbers. As thousands of acres throughout California burned, labor provided by incarcerated firefighters was invaluable, filling critical gaps in the workforce. Out of the nearly 2,000 firefighters deployed by CAL FIRE to fight the raging Eaton and Palisades fires, almost 1,000 of those responding were incarcerated individuals [8]. Despite being some of the first responders on the scene, California Conservation Fire Camp Program participants fought these fires without hoses, relying on other manual tools such as backpack pumps, chainsaws, and axes. When the state’s firefighters were spread thin across simultaneous fires, incarcerated firefighters supplemented their efforts and offered support in mitigating and slowing the fire’s spread. 

Advocates for the Conservation Fire Camp Program argue that it boosts morale among incarcerated individuals, offers potential sentence reduction opportunities, and gives incarcerated individuals a better chance at integrating into a similar role upon release. When discussing their experience, many participants commented that their work gave them a sense of pride and empowerment. One former inmate stated, “Going to camp for the first time gave me a sense of value for myself … [it] started a belief in myself that I could be good at something good, good at the right thing” [9]. This program integrates incarcerated individuals—a highly stigmatized population—into public service, providing them with the opportunity to make a positive impact on their community despite their sentence. In the words of Justin Schmollinger, the supervisor of CAL FIRE’s Conservation Fire Camp Program, “Fire doesn’t know if you’re a volunteer, if you’re paid, [or] if you’re an inmate” [10]. 

The Conservation Fire Camp Program also provides incarcerated participants a chance to reduce their sentence. Inmates can earn one or two days off of their sentence for every day they work [11]. The tangible benefit of reduced sentencing supplements the wages offered, further incentivizing participation despite the low financial compensation. Given recent funding cuts to the LAFD, the reduced sentence time allows the CDCR to spend less on labor without concerns about a lowered supply of willing volunteers. The incarcerated labor used to fight fires saves the California state government approximately $100 million annually [12]. Another key incentive for inmates is that the program provides certifications that could assist participants in transitioning to professional firefighting roles upon release. In 2020, Assembly Bill 2147 was passed, expunging the records of certain formerly incarcerated firefighters [13]. Supporters of the California Conservation Fire Camp Program and AB 2147 assert that this legislation removes a critical structural barrier to employment post-incarceration. 

On the other hand, when evaluating the merits of the Conservation Fire Camp Program, low wages, health and safety concerns, and barriers to post-release employment underscore systemic flaws in all inmate vocational programs. LAFD firefighters earn salaries between $85,784 and $124,549 annually, with benefits [14]. Comparatively, depending on their skill level, members of the incarcerated fire crew earn between $5.80 and $10.24 per day [15]. They can earn an additional $1 per hour if they are assigned to an active emergency, where they work up to 24-hour shifts. 

Low pay is not a new problem, nor is it unique to the California prison system. In fact, there is a legal basis for slavery and indentured servitude on the state and federal level. The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, as well as California’s state constitution, enumerates that slavery and indentured servitude can only exist in the United States as punishment for a crime for which the defendant was duly convicted [16]. It is this provision that allowed the prison industrial complex to take root, enabling segments of government and industry to profit off of mass incarceration. Historically, the justice system lacks substantive rehabilitative measures for incarcerated individuals, instead granting corporations leeway to use growing incarceration rates as avenues for sourcing cheap labor [17]. 

Although the inmates working as firefighters generally speak positively about their position in the Conservation Fire Camp Program, stating that it is the best job one can get as an inmate, they make just under $1 an hour—even in active emergencies. Basic supply and demand suggest that, with the firefighting labor shortage, the CDCR should be incentivized to pay inmate participants a competitive wage. Yet, the provision in the 13th Amendment removes this incentive and the legal requirement to pay inmates the federal minimum wage for vocational programs. The Conservation Fire Camp Program is valuable and gives inmates a unique chance to serve their community through a rehabilitative experience. Still, these volunteers should be compensated fairly for their labor and sacrifice, just like the LAFD’s firefighters. 

Additionally, incarcerated firefighters face greater safety risks in the California Conservation Fire Camp Program compared to civilian firefighters and alternative vocational program participants. By nature of their lack of resources and protections, inmate firefighters are four times more likely to be injured than their civilian counterparts and eight times more likely to suffer injuries caused by smoke inhalation [18]. Unlike compensation plans for civilian firefighters, such as those employed by CAL FIRE and the LAFD, inmate compensation plans do not include healthcare or workers’ compensation in the case of injury while in the line of duty. Incarcerated firefighters face the same firefighting dangers as civilian firefighters without the same training or resources. They are expected to be the first responders in active fire zones with no more than hand tools, water-filled backpacks, and entry-level training. 

Even with the passage of AB 2147, formerly incarcerated firefighters face barriers to employment opportunities upon release due to state licensing for felons. Many of California’s fire departments require state certifications that felons are often ineligible to obtain. This obstacle prevents incarcerated firefighters from leveraging their experience in the Conservation Fire Camp Program to aid their transition to a stable career. Critics of AB 2147 argue that the legislation does not go far enough in resolving systemic obstacles—such as hiring discrimination—that block employment paths. For example, Da’Ton Harris Jr. worked as an incarcerated firefighter while in prison. It took 18 months after starting the process for his record to be expunged, and even more time for him to find work as a firefighter. Before getting their records expunged, formerly incarcerated firefighters are unlikely to be hired outside of state and federal fire departments because criminal records disqualify candidates from receiving an EMT certification—an entry-level requirement for most fire departments. Harris affirmed the delayed court processing by saying, “I was risking my life every day to try and better the community … I don’t think it was a smooth transition at all” [19]. If the intention of the Conservation Fire Camp Program is truly to rehabilitate inmates and reintegrate them into society, then the court processing system must work with, not against, inmates. 

Overall, California’s Conservation Fire Camp Program is the best vocational program currently available to California’s inmates. It provides inmates with higher wages than other programs, avenues for post-incarceration integration, and an opportunity to protect their community. Instead of leveraging incarcerated individuals for their cheap labor, California’s government must transform the Conservation Fire Camp Program into a rehabilitation program that supports inmates’ ability to thrive upon release. Raising wages and providing benefits is an obvious first step toward reforming the Conservation Fire Camp Program. While Proposition 6, which sought to eliminate forced labor in California prisons, did not pass, advocates continue to fight for fair wages. Paying incarcerated people at least minimum wage will allow them to pay for necessities and work their way out of poverty. Nationally, prior to their incarceration, inmates had an annual median income that was 41 percent less than non-incarcerated people in the same age range [20]. Consequently, incarceration worsens the income inequality between incarcerated and non-incarcerated people. A lack of access to post-incarceration employment opportunities reinforces the barrier to incarcerated people’s economic stability. Additionally, incorporating hazard pay and health insurance into compensation plans would add a layer of protection for incarcerated firefighters against the dangers of their work.

These benefits should be supplemented by increased education and vocational training to improve post-release job outlooks. It is not enough that the Conservation Fire Camp Program barely meets the status quo for inmate rehabilitation, where national inmate compensation is trending downward and averaging $0.14 an hour [21]. Legislators have spent enough time virtue-signaling their support for prison reform. It is time for the government to push for tangible improvements in federal and state prisons alike. At a time when thousands of inmates are risking their lives fighting wildfires, floods, and other natural disasters, more expansive legal reforms are necessary to ensure appropriate pay, protections, and career opportunities for incarcerated workers. The best vocational program should not be the lesser evil of deeply flawed options, but one that invests in inmates’ health, safety, and success.